Agriculture · 2026
Effect of Tillage and Fertilization Practices on Soil Physical Properties and Grain Yield in the Tableland Region of China’s Loess Plateau
Zhou, X., Wang, S., Zhang, J., Zhao, G., Dang, Y., Wang, L., Zhou, G., Mi, W., Hu, J., Li, S., Fan, T., Cheng, W.
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Effect of Tillage and Fertilization Practices on Soil Physic…
Abstract
Water scarcity, poor soil, and low water and fertilizer utilization are major challenges on agricultural production in the tableland region of China’s Loess Plateau. Optimizing tillage patterns and improving soil nutrient status can improve crop yield and water and fertilizer utilization efficiency. A field trial was initiated in 2005 to assess the impacts of various tillage and fertilization practices on dryland agricultural production. A split-plot design was used, with tillage practices (traditional tillage and no tillage) as the main plot treatment and fertilization management (no fertilization (CK), mineral nitrogen (N), mineral phosphorus (P), composted cow manure (M), a combination of mineral nitrogen and phosphorus (NP), and a combination of mineral nitrogen, phosphorus, and composted cow manure (NMP)) as the split-plot treatment. An experiment was conducted from 2022 to 2024. The NMP treatment resulted in lower bulk density, a lower three-soil-phase index, and higher mean weight diameter, geometric mean diameter, soil water storage, total nitrogen, and soil organic matter than the CK. In the no-tillage treatment, the crop roots were less effective at extracting water from the deep subsoil, leading to greater residual moisture at depth (especially in the 120–200 cm soil layer) and lower yield and water use efficiency than in traditional tillage. The grain yield and water use efficiency were 9.2% and 8.4% lower, respectively, under no tillage than under traditional tillage. The NMP under traditional tillage exhibited lower surface soil bulk density and a higher three-soil-phase index, mean weight diameter, geometric mean diameter, soil organic matter, total nitrogen, and water use efficiency than the unfertilized control, resulting in higher grain yields. The NMP under traditional tillage is recommended to increase grain yield and water use efficiency in wheat–maize rotation systems in the tableland region of China’s Loess Plateau. Future studies should analyze the deep root architecture and the effect of weed competition on soil water depletion.
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Water scarcity, poor soil, and low water and fertilizer utilization are major challenges on agricultural production in the tableland region of China’s Loess Plateau. Optimizing tillage patterns and improving soil nutrient status can improve crop yield and water and fertilizer utilization efficiency. A field trial was initiated in 2005 to assess the impacts of various tillage and fertilization practices on dryland agricultural production. A split-plot design was used, with tillage practices (traditional tillage and no tillage) as the main plot treatment and fertilization management (no fertilization (CK), mineral nitrogen (N), mineral phosphorus (P), composted cow manure (M), a combination of mineral nitrogen and phosphorus (NP), and a combination of mineral nitrogen, phosphorus, and composted cow manure (NMP)) as the split-plot treatment. An experiment was conducted from 2022 to 2024. The NMP treatment resulted in lower bulk density, a lower three-soil-phase index, and higher mean weight diameter, geometric mean diameter, soil water storage, total nitrogen, and soil organic matter than the CK. In the no-tillage treatment, the crop roots were less effective at extracting water from the deep subsoil, leading to greater residual moisture at depth (especially in the 120–200 cm soil layer) and lower yield and water use efficiency than in traditional tillage. The grain yield and water use efficiency were 9.2% and 8.4% lower, respectively, under no tillage than under traditional tillage. The NMP under traditional tillage exhibited lower surface soil bulk density and a higher three-soil-phase index, mean weight diameter, geometric mean diameter, soil organic matter, total nitrogen, and water use efficiency than the unfertilized control, resulting in higher grain yields. The NMP under traditional tillage is recommended to increase grain yield and water use efficiency in wheat–maize rotation systems in the tableland region of China’s Loess Plateau. Future studies should analyze the deep root architecture and the effect of weed competition on soil water depletion.
Water scarcity, poor soil, and low water and fertilizer utilization are major challenges on agricultural production in the tableland region of China’s Loess Plateau. Optimizing tillage patterns and improving soil nutrient status can improve crop yield and water and fertilizer utilization efficiency. A field trial was initiated in 2005 to assess the impacts of various tillage and fertilization practices on dryland agricultural production. A split-plot design was used, with tillage practices (traditional tillage and no tillage) as the main plot treatment and fertilization management (no fertilization (CK), mineral nitrogen (N), mineral phosphorus (P), composted cow manure (M), a combination of mineral nitrogen and phosphorus (NP), and a combination of mineral nitrogen, phosphorus, and composted cow manure (NMP)) as the split-plot treatment. An experiment was conducted from 2022 to 2024. The NMP treatment resulted in lower bulk density, a lower three-soil-phase index, and higher mean weight diameter, geometric mean diameter, soil water storage, total nitrogen, and soil organic matter than the CK. In the no-tillage treatment, the crop roots were less effective at extracting water from the deep subsoil, leading to greater residual moisture at depth (especially in the 120–200 cm soil layer) and lower yield and water use efficiency than in traditional tillage. The grain yield and water use efficiency were 9.2% and 8.4% lower, respectively, under no tillage than under traditional tillage. The NMP under traditional tillage exhibited lower surface soil bulk density and a higher three-soil-phase index, mean weight diameter, geometric mean diameter, soil organic matter, total nitrogen, and water use efficiency than the unfertilized control, resulting in higher grain yields. The NMP under traditional tillage is recommended to increase grain yield and water use efficiency in wheat–maize rotation systems in the tableland region of China’s Loess Plateau. Future studies should analyze the deep root architecture and the effect of weed competition on soil water depletion.
Findings
What changed what, as the paper reports it. Grouped by the measured property. The largest groups are open; open the others as you need them.
grain yield
↑ 2↓ 1= 14
- increase
NMP: mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and composted cow manure vs. CK: no fertilizationsignificant · 2022maize;2023-24wheat · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · both tillage systems; all6 Table3 pairs distinct letters .05
Numbers
- treatment 8,717 vs. control 6,120 kg/ha (+42.43 %) · 2022 · TT
- treatment 4,004 vs. control 1,471 kg/ha (+172.2 %) · 2023 · TT
- treatment 5,675 vs. control 2,495 kg/ha (+127.5 %) · 2024 · TT
- treatment 10,050 vs. control 4,653 kg/ha (+116.1 %) · 2022 · NT
- treatment 4,187 vs. control 807 kg/ha (+418.8 %) · 2023 · NT
- treatment 4,550 vs. control 2,264 kg/ha (+101 %) · 2024 · NT
Source · p. 14 “crop grain yield for NP and NMP significantly (p < 0.05) increased by 38.5% and 42.4%”
Source · p. 15 “NMP 10,053 ± 687 a 4187 ± 149 a 4550 ± 495 a”
Source · p. 15 “CK 4653 ± 1811 c 807 ± 71 c 2264 ± 870 b”
- decrease
no tillage (NT) vs. traditional tillage (TT)significant · 2023 and2024 winter wheat · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · two-level marginal tillage effects;2023**.01,2024*.05; conservative common .05
Numbers
- treatment 1,881 vs. control 2,304 kg/ha (-18.36 %) · 2023
- treatment 3,060 vs. control 3,414 kg/ha (-10.37 %) · 2024
Source · p. 15 “the crop grain yields under traditional tillage systems were lower than those under no-tillage systems in 2022, while the opposite effect was observed in 2023 and 2024.”
Source · p. 15 “Tillage practice (T) ns 11.1 ** 5.6 * ns 5.0 *”
- no effect
no tillage (NT) vs. traditional tillage (TT)not significant · 2022 spring maize · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · Table3 explicitns for two-level tillage main effect, despite upward mean
Numbers
- treatment 7,192 vs. control 7,111 kg/ha (+1.139 %)
Source · p. 15 “Tillage practice (T) ns 11.1 ** 5.6 * ns 5.0 *”
- increase
NP: a combination of mineral nitrogen and phosphorus vs. CK: no fertilizationsignificant · 2022 spring maize; 2023-2024 winter wheat · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · NP versus CK under TT and NT, all six Tukey pairs disjoint at .05; mineral NP is distinct from the organomineral NMP treatment. Grain yield standardized to14% moisture.
Numbers
- treatment 8,478 vs. control 6,120 kg/ha (+38.53 %) · 2022 spring maize · TT; NP a versus CK b
- treatment 3,468 vs. control 1,471 kg/ha (+135.8 %) · 2023 winter wheat · TT; NP a versus CK b
- treatment 4,984 vs. control 2,495 kg/ha (+99.76 %) · 2024 winter wheat · TT; NP a versus CK b
- treatment 8,573 vs. control 4,653 kg/ha (+84.25 %) · 2022 spring maize · NT; NP ab versus CK c
- treatment 3,242 vs. control 807 kg/ha (+301.7 %) · 2023 winter wheat · NT; NP b versus CK c
- treatment 4,310 vs. control 2,264 kg/ha (+90.37 %) · 2024 winter wheat · NT; NP a versus CK b
Source · p. 14 “under traditional tillage systems, crop grain yield for NP and NMP significantly (p < 0.05) increased by 38.5% and 42.4%”
Source · p. 15 “NP 8478 ± 273 a 3468 ± 1280 a 4984 ± 246 a”
Source · p. 15 “NP 8573 ± 1086 ab 3242 ± 82 b 4310 ± 773 a”
soil bulk density
↓ 1= 23
- decrease
NMP: mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and composted cow manure vs. CK: no fertilizationsignificant · 0–10 cm · 2023 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-10cm; TT; Fig3 CK a,NMPbc;2024all a
Source · p. 7 “soil bulk density in the 0–10 cm layer decreased by 8.4% and 7.1% under treatments M and NMP, respectively”
- no effect
NMP: mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and composted cow manure vs. CK: no fertilizationnot significant · 0–20 cm · 2023 and2024 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-20cm; NT; Fig3 all same a, not inferred solely from omnibus
Source · p. 7 “There was no significant difference in soil bulk density among the different fertilization treatments”
Source · p. 8 “Figure 3. Soil bulk density at 0–10 and 10–20 cm depth in different treatments.”
- no effect
no tillage (NT) vs. traditional tillage (TT)not significant · 0–20 cm · 2023-2024 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-20cm; tillage main effect averaged over fertilizers
Source · p. 16 “In this study, tillage practices had a marginal and not significant effect on soil bulk density.”
soil organic matter
↑ 33
- increase
NMP: mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and composted cow manure vs. CK: no fertilizationsignificant · 0–20 cm · 2022-2024 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-20cm; TT2022-24 andNT2023-24; NT2022 sharedb excluded
Source · p. 14 “and 48.8% for NMP in years 2022, 2023, and 2024, respectively.”
Source · p. 14 “it increased by 16.0%, 57.7%, and 68.4% over the three-year period for NMP.”
Source · p. 14 “Figure 7. Soil organic matter and total nitrogen at a soil depth of 20 cm in different treatments.”
- increase
no tillage (NT) vs. traditional tillage (TT)significant · 0–20 cm · 2022-2024 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-20cm; marginal two-level tillage effect, averaged fertilizers; interactions present
Source · p. 13 “tillage (SOM: F = 185.607; TN: F = 216.546)”
Source · p. 13 “(p < 0.001 for all)”
Source · p. 14 “The soil organic matter for no tillage increased by 26.9%, 20.2%, and”
Source · p. 14 “13.8%, respectively”
- increase
M: composted cow manure vs. CK: no fertilizationsignificant · 0–20 cm · 2022-2024 after harvest · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-20 cm; composted cow manure alone versus unfertilized CK under NT. Figure7 M/CK letters a/b (2022), ab/c (2023), ab/c (2024), Tukey alpha .05.
Numbers
- percent_change 26.2 · 0–20 cm · 2022 · NT; M versus CK
- percent_change 34.3 · 0–20 cm · 2023 · NT; M versus CK
- percent_change 40.3 · 0–20 cm · 2024 · NT; M versus CK
Source · p. 14 “Under no tillage, SOM increased by 26.2%, 34.3%, and 40.3% for M in the same years, respectively”
Source · p. 14 “Figure 7. Soil organic matter and total nitrogen at a soil depth of 20 cm in different treatments.”
soil total nitrogen
↑ 2↓ 13
- increase
NMP: mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and composted cow manure vs. CK: no fertilizationsignificant · 0–20 cm · 2022-2024 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-20cm; TT2023-24 andNT2022-24; Fig7 distinct letters; TT2022 opposite effect separately
Source · p. 14 “for NMP it increased by 22.2%, and 39.7% in years 2023 and 2024 under traditional tillage.”
Source · p. 14 “for NMP it increased by 20.0%, 44.2%, and 54.9% for no tillage over the three years.”
- decrease
NMP: mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and composted cow manure vs. CK: no fertilizationsignificant · 0–20 cm · 2022 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-20cm; TT; Fig7 CKab versus NMPc; opposite to broad abstract
Source · p. 14 “Figure 7. Soil organic matter and total nitrogen at a soil depth of 20 cm in different treatments.”
- increase
no tillage (NT) vs. traditional tillage (TT)significant · 0–20 cm · 2022-2024 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-20cm; marginal two-level tillage effect, averaged fertilizers; interactions present
Source · p. 13 “tillage (SOM: F = 185.607; TN: F = 216.546)”
Source · p. 13 “(p < 0.001 for all)”
Source · p. 14 “the total nitrogen for no tillage increased by 33.5%, 14.8%, and”
Source · p. 14 “13.1%, respectively, compared to traditional tillage over three years.”
soil liquid volume fraction
↑ 1↓ 12
- decrease
NMP: mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and composted cow manure vs. CK: no fertilizationsignificant · 0–20 cm · June2024 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-10cm under TT andNT;10-20cm underNT only; Figure4 different Tukey letters
Source · p. 8 “The soil liquid volume fraction in the 0–10 cm depth layer decreased by 14.2%, 26.8%, and 13.1% for treatments P, M, and NMP, respectively, under traditional tillage.”
Source · p. 9 “The soil liquid volume fraction in the 10–20 cm depth layer decreased by”
Source · p. 9 “16.3%, 18.9%, and 21.3% for treatments N, NP, and NMP, respectively, under no tillage.”
- increase
no tillage (NT) vs. traditional tillage (TT)significant · 10–20 cm · June2024 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 10-20cm; explicit subsoil comparison, averaged fertilizers
Source · p. 17 “Compared to traditional tillage, no tillage significantly reduced the soil gas volume fraction and increased both liquid volume fraction and TSPI at a soil depth of 10–20 cm.”
soil gas volume fraction
↑ 12
- increase
NMP: mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and composted cow manure vs. CK: no fertilizationsignificant · 0–10 cm · June2024 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-10cm both tillage systems; Fig4 distinct letters
Source · p. 9 “The soil gas volume fraction at the 0–10 cm depth increased by 23.4% for M and by 17.1% for NMP under traditional tillage, whereas under no tillage, it increased by 40.6% for NMP.”
- decrease
no tillage (NT) vs. traditional tillage (TT)significance not stated · 10–20 cm · June2024 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 10-20cm; explicit significant subsoil comparison; not overall gas ANOVA
Source · p. 17 “Compared to traditional tillage, no tillage significantly reduced the soil gas volume fraction and increased both liquid volume fraction and TSPI at a soil depth of 10–20 cm.”
three-soil-phase index (TSPI)
↓ 12
- decrease
NMP: mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and composted cow manure vs. CK: no fertilizationsignificant · 0–20 cm · June2024 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-10cm underTTandNT;10-20cm underNT only; Fig4 pair letters .05
Source · p. 9 “The three-soil-phase index (TSPI) at the 0–10 cm soil depth de-creased by 5.2%,”
Source · p. 9 “11.1%, and 5.7% for treatments P, M, and NMP, respectively, under traditional tillage.”
Source · p. 9 “under no tillage, the TSPI for N, NP, and NMP decreased by 3.9%, 5.5%, and 4.7%, respectively.”
- increase
no tillage (NT) vs. traditional tillage (TT)significance not stated · 10–20 cm · June2024 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 10-20cm; explicit significant subsoil comparison; not overall TSPI ANOVA
Source · p. 17 “Compared to traditional tillage, no tillage significantly reduced the soil gas volume fraction and increased both liquid volume fraction and TSPI at a soil depth of 10–20 cm.”
water-stable aggregate mean weight diameter
↑ 1= 12
- no effect
NMP: mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and composted cow manure vs. CK: no fertilizationnot significant · 0–20 cm · July2023 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-20cm; both tillages; Table2 shared letters override abstract increase
Numbers
- treatment 0.53 vs. control 0.5 mm (+6 %) · TT
- treatment 0.85 vs. control 0.75 mm (+13.33 %) · NT
Source · p. 11 “66.2 ± 4.9 a 0.53 ± 0.1 ab 0.32 ± 0.1 a”
Source · p. 11 “68.8 ± 6.1 a 0.50 ± 0.0 ab 0.32 ± 0.0 a”
Source · p. 11 “74.5 ± 5.6 a 0.85 ± 0.2 a 0.50 ± 0.1 a”
Source · p. 11 “72.1 ± 6 ab 0.75 ± 0.2 a 0.42 ± 0.1 a”
- increase
no tillage (NT) vs. traditional tillage (TT)significant · 0–20 cm · July2023 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-20cm; two-level tillage main effect, averaged fertilizers
Numbers
- treatment 0.76 vs. control 0.5 mm (+52 %)
Source · p. 9 “mean weight diameter (MWD) was significantly affected by tillage practices (F = 55.783, p < 0.01)”
Source · p. 10 “MWD, and GMD under traditional tillage systems were lower than those under no-tillage sys-tems.”
geometric mean diameter
↑ 1= 12
- no effect
NMP: mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and composted cow manure vs. CK: no fertilizationnot significant · 0–20 cm · July2023 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-20cm; both tillages; Table2 all a override abstract increase
Numbers
- treatment 0.32 vs. control 0.32 mm (0 %) · TT
- treatment 0.5 vs. control 0.42 mm (+19.05 %) · NT
Source · p. 11 “66.2 ± 4.9 a 0.53 ± 0.1 ab 0.32 ± 0.1 a”
Source · p. 11 “68.8 ± 6.1 a 0.50 ± 0.0 ab 0.32 ± 0.0 a”
Source · p. 11 “74.5 ± 5.6 a 0.85 ± 0.2 a 0.50 ± 0.1 a”
Source · p. 11 “72.1 ± 6 ab 0.75 ± 0.2 a 0.42 ± 0.1 a”
- increase
no tillage (NT) vs. traditional tillage (TT)significant · 0–20 cm · July2023 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-20cm; two-level marginal tillage effect despite fertilizer interaction
Numbers
- treatment 0.43 vs. control 0.31 mm (+38.71 %)
Source · p. 10 “(GMD) was significantly influenced by both tillage practices (F = 29.615, p < 0.001)”
Source · p. 10 “MWD, and GMD under traditional tillage systems were lower than those under no-tillage sys-tems.”
water use efficiency
↑ 1↓ 12
- increase
NMP: mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and composted cow manure vs. CK: no fertilizationsignificant · winter wheat2023-2024 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · TTwheat only; NT NMP WUE source row contradictory and omitted
Numbers
- treatment 40.4 vs. control 15.9 kg/ha/mm (+154.1 %)
Source · p. 15 “Water use efficiency of wheat for the same treatments increased by 97.3% and 154.3%, respectively, under traditional tillage systems”
- decrease
no tillage (NT) vs. traditional tillage (TT)significant · 2023-2024 winter wheat · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · marginal tillage contrast averaged across fertilizers; Table3*.05; maize ns omitted
Numbers
- treatment 21 vs. control 23.8 kg/ha/mm (-11.76 %)
Source · p. 15 “no tillage decreased WUE by 5.3% for maize and 11.4% for wheat across all years and regardless of fertilization treatment.”
Source · p. 15 “Tillage practice (T) ns 11.1 ** 5.6 * ns 5.0 *”
soil solid volume fraction
↓ 11
- decrease
NMP: mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and composted cow manure vs. CK: no fertilizationsignificant · 0–10 cm · June2024 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 0-10cm; NT; CK a,NMP b
Source · p. 8 “the soil solid volume fraction in the 0–10 cm layer decreased by 15.9% under no tillage for NMP”
soil water storage
↑ 11
- increase
no tillage (NT) vs. traditional tillage (TT)significant · 120–200 cm · 2022-2024 · Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan · 120-200cm; marginal tillage effect across fertilizers/dates; Table1P<.001
Numbers
- treatment 160.6 vs. control 151.2 mm (+6.217 %)
Source · p. 19 “The soil water storage capacity in the 120–200 cm layer was significantly higher under no tillage than under conventional tillage.”
Set-up
Treatments
- tillage practicesTillage system
- traditional tillage (TT)Conventional tillageno tillage (NT)Zero tillage
- fertilization managementFertilization
- CK: no fertilizationNo fertilizerNMP: mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and composted cow manureOrganomineral fertilizerM: composted cow manureAnimal manure compostNP: a combination of mineral nitrogen and phosphorusNitrogen phosphorus fertilizer
Measured
- soil bulk densityBulk density
- Unit
- g/cm3
- Method
- cutting ring
- soil solid volume fractionSoil solid-phase volume fraction
- Unit
- %
- Method
- DIK-1150 three-phase analyzer
- soil liquid volume fractionWater content
- Unit
- %
- Method
- volumetric water from DIK-1150 three-phase analyzer
- soil gas volume fractionAir-filled porosity
- Unit
- %
- three-soil-phase index (TSPI)Soil structure index
- Method
- TSPI=((solid%-25)*liquid%*gas%)^0.4769;0-100
- water-stable aggregate mean weight diameterWater-stable aggregate mean weight diameter (MWD)
- Unit
- mm
- geometric mean diameterAggregate geometric mean diameter
- Unit
- mm
- soil water storageWater content
- Unit
- mm
- soil organic matter
- Unit
- g/kg
- soil total nitrogenTotal Nitrogen
- Unit
- g/kg
- grain yieldYield
- Unit
- kg/ha
- Method
- 14% standard moisture
- water use efficiencyWater use efficiency (WUE)
- Unit
- kg/ha/mm
- Method
- grain yield/water consumption
Sites
Dryland Agriculture Station, Zhenyuan
- Location
- Zhenyuan, Qingyang City of Gansu Province, China35.49° N, 107.49° E
- Climate
- 9.3 °C mean annual temperature510 mm annual precipitation
- Soil
- dark loessial soil · Chinese
- Land use
- rain-fed wheat-maize rotationNon-irrigated arable land
- Management on the whole site
- three consecutive years of winter wheat followed by one year of spring maizeWheat/Triticum aestivumWheat/Triticum aestivumWheat/Triticum aestivumMaize/Corn/Zea mays
| Depth | Texture | Clay | pH | Organic C | Bulk density |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| general soil (texture depth not stated) | sandy clay | – | – | – | – |
| 20–200 cm | – | – | – | – | 1.3 g/cm3 |
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